Saturday, March 25, 2017

Surprising new role for lungs: Making blood

Surprising new role for lungs: Making blood

Cells in mouse lungs produce most blood platelets and can replenish blood-making cells in bone marrow, study shows

                       Date:         March 22, 2017

                   Source:         University of California - San Francisco

                Summary:        Using video microscopy in the living mouse lung, scientists

                                        have revealed that the lungs play a previously unrecognized

                                        role in blood production.


FULL STORY
Release of platelets in the lung vasculature.
Credit: Image courtesy of University of California - San Francisco
Release of platelets in the lung vasculature.
Credit: Image courtesy of University of California - San Francisco
Using video microscopy in the living mouse lung, UC San Francisco scientists have revealed that the lungs play a previously unrecognized role in blood production. As reported online March 22, 2017 inNature, the researchers found that the lungs produced more than half of the platelets -- blood components required for the clotting that stanches bleeding -- in the mouse circulation. In another surprise finding, the scientists also identified a previously unknown pool of blood stem cells capable of restoring blood production when the stem cells of the bone marrow, previously thought to be the principal site of blood production, are depleted.
"This finding definitely suggests a more sophisticated view of the lungs -- that they're not just for respiration but also a key partner in formation of crucial aspects of the blood," said pulmonologist Mark R. Looney, MD, a professor of medicine and of laboratory medicine at UCSF and the new paper's senior author. "What we've observed here in mice strongly suggests the lung may play a key role in blood formation in humans as well."
The findings could have major implications for understanding human diseases in which patients suffer from low platelet counts, or thrombocytopenia, which afflicts millions of people and increases the risk of dangerous uncontrolled bleeding. The findings also raise questions about how blood stem cells residing in the lungs may affect the recipients of lung transplants.
Mouse lungs produce more than 10 million platelets per hour, live imaging studies show
The new study was made possible by a refinement of a technique known as two-photon intravital imaging recently developed by Looney and co-author Matthew F. Krummel, PhD, a UCSF professor of pathology. This imaging approach allowed the researchers to perform the extremely delicate task of visualizing the behavior of individual cells within the tiny blood vessels of a living mouse lung.
Looney and his team were using this technique to examine interactions between the immune system and circulating platelets in the lungs, using a mouse strain engineered so that platelets emit bright green fluorescence, when they noticed a surprisingly large population of platelet-producing cells called megakaryocytes in the lung vasculature. Though megakaryocytes had been observed in the lung before, they were generally thought to live and produce platelets primarily in the bone marrow.
"When we discovered this massive population of megakaryocytes that appeared to be living in the lung, we realized we had to follow this up," said Emma Lefrançais, PhD, a postdoctoral researcher in Looney's lab and co-first author on the new paper.
More detailed imaging sessions soon revealed megakaryocytes in the act of producing more than 10 million platelets per hour within the lung vasculature, suggesting that more than half of a mouse's total platelet production occurs in the lung, not the bone marrow, as researchers had long presumed. Video microscopy experiments also revealed a wide variety of previously overlooked megakaryocyte progenitor cells and blood stem cells sitting quietly outside the lung vasculature -- estimated at 1 million per mouse lung.
Newly discovered blood stem cells in the lung can restore damaged bone marrow
The discovery of megakaryocytes and blood stem cells in the lung raised questions about how these cells move back and forth between the lung and bone marrow. To address these questions, the researchers conducted a clever set of lung transplant studies:
First, the team transplanted lungs from normal donor mice into recipient mice with fluorescent megakaryocytes, and found that fluorescent megakaryocytes from the recipient mice soon began turning up in the lung vasculature. This suggested that the platelet-producing megakaryocytes in the lung originate in the bone marrow.
"It's fascinating that megakaryocytes travel all the way from the bone marrow to the lungs to produce platelets," said Guadalupe Ortiz-Muñoz, PhD, also a postdoctoral researcher in the Looney lab and the paper's other co-first author. "It's possible that the lung is an ideal bioreactor for platelet production because of the mechanical force of the blood, or perhaps because of some molecular signaling we don't yet know about."
In another experiment, the researchers transplanted lungs with fluorescent megakaryocyte progenitor cells into mutant mice with low platelet counts. The transplants produced a large burst of fluorescent platelets that quickly restored normal levels, an effect that persisted over several months of observation -- much longer than the lifespan of individual megakaryocytes or platelets. To the researchers, this indicated that resident megakaryocyte progenitor cells in the transplanted lungs had become activated by the recipient mouse's low platelet counts and had produced healthy new megakaryocyte cells to restore proper platelet production.
Finally, the researchers transplanted healthy lungs in which all cells were fluorescently tagged into mutant mice whose bone marrow lacked normal blood stem cells. Analysis of the bone marrow of recipient mice showed that fluorescent cells originating from the transplanted lungs soon traveled to the damaged bone marrow and contributed to the production not just of platelets, but of a wide variety of blood cells, including immune cells such as neutrophils, B cells and T cells. These experiments suggest that the lungs play host to a wide variety of blood progenitor cells and stem cells capable of restocking damaged bone marrow and restoring production of many components of the blood.
"To our knowledge this is the first description of blood progenitors resident in the lung, and it raises a lot of questions with clinical relevance for the millions of people who suffer from thrombocytopenia," said Looney, who is also an attending physician on UCSF's pulmonary consult service and intensive care units.
In particular, the study suggests that researchers who have proposed treating platelet diseases with platelets produced from engineered megakaryocytes should look to the lungs as a resource for platelet production, Looney said. The study also presents new avenues of research for stem cell biologists to explore how the bone marrow and lung collaborate to produce a healthy blood system through the mutual exchange of stem cells.
"These observations alter existing paradigms regarding blood cell formation, lung biology and disease, and transplantation," said pulmonologist Guy A. Zimmerman, MD, who is associate chair of the Department of Internal Medicine at the University of Utah School of Medicine and was an independent reviewer of the new study for Nature. "The findings have direct clinical relevance and provide a rich group of questions for future studies of platelet genesis and megakaryocyte function in lung inflammation and other inflammatory conditions, bleeding and thrombotic disorders, and transplantation."
The observation that blood stem cells and progenitors seem to travel back and forth freely between the lung and bone marrow lends support to a growing sense among researchers that stem cells may be much more active than previously appreciated, Looney said. "We're seeing more and more that the stem cells that produce the blood don't just live in one place but travel around through the blood stream. Perhaps 'studying abroad' in different organs is a normal part of stem cell education."
Story Source:
Materials provided by University of California - San Francisco. Original written by Nicholas Weiler. Note: Content may be edited for style and length.
Journal Reference:
    1.    Emma Lefrançais, Guadalupe Ortiz-Muñoz, Axelle Caudrillier, Beñat Mallavia, Fengchun Liu, 
         David M.Sayah, Emily E. Thornton, Mark B. Headley, Tovo David, Shaun R. Coughlin, Matthew F.              Krummel,Andrew D. Leavitt, Emmanuelle Passegué, Mark R. Looney. The lung is a site of platelet        biogenesis    and a reservoir for haematopoietic progenitors. Nature, 2017;                                        DOI: 10.1038/nature21706

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What is Flakka & what effect faces the human body

alpha-Pyrrolidinopentiophenone
Drug
α-Pyrrolidinopentiophenone is a synthetic stimulant of the cathinone class developed in the 1960s that has been sold as a designer drug. Colloquially it is sometimes called flakka or gravel. 
Formula: C15H21NO
Molar mass: 231.333 g/mol


Story highlights

  • There is high risk of overdose with flakka, which can lead to violent behavior, hyperthermia and superhuman strength
  • The chemical in flakka is similar to a key ingredient in "bath salts," which were banned in 2012
  • Flakka and "bath salts" could be more dangerous than stimulants such as cocaine
(CNN)It goes by the name flakka. In some parts of the country, it is also called "gravel" because of its white crystal chunks that have been compared to aquarium gravel.
The man-made drug causes a high similar to cocaine. But like "bath salts," a group of related synthetic drugs that were banned in 2012, flakka has the potential to be much more dangerous than cocaine.

    "It's so difficult to control the exact dose [of flakka]," said Jim Hall, a drug abuse epidemiologist at Nova Southeastern University in Fort Lauderdale, Florida. "Just a little bit of difference in how much is consumed can be the difference between getting high and dying. It's that critical."
    A small overdose of the drug, which can be smoked, injected, snorted or injected, can lead to a range of extreme symptoms: "excited delirium," as experts call it, marked by violent behavior; spikes in body temperature (105 degrees and higher, Hall said); paranoia. Probably what has brought flakka the most attention is that it gives users what feels like the strength and fury of the Incredible Hulk.
    Deadly High: How synthetic drugs are killing kids
    Flakka stories are starting to pile up. A man in South Florida who broke down the hurricane-proof doors of a police department admitted to being on flakka. A girl in Melbourne, Florida, ran through the street screaming that she was Satan while on a flakka trip. Authorities in the state are warning people about the dangers of the drug.
    Florida seems to be particularly hard hit by flakka overdoses.
    Hall said that there are about three or four hospitalizations a day in Broward County in South Florida, and more on weekends. It is unclear why the Sunshine State is a hotbed for flakka abuse; "it's a major question in our community," Hall said.
    Cases have also been reported in Alabama, Mississippi and New Jersey.
    Flakka, which gets its name from Spanish slang for a beautiful woman ("la flaca"), contains a chemical that is a close cousin to MDPV, a key ingredient in "bath salts." These chemicals bind and thwart molecules on the surface of neurons that normally keep the levels of mood-regulating neurotransmitters, dopamine and serotonin, in check. The result is to "flood the brain" with these chemicals, Hall said. Cocaine and methamphetamine have similar modes of action in the brain, but the chemicals in flakka have longer-lasting effects, Hall said.
    Although a typical flakka high can last one to several hours, it is possible that the neurological effects can be permanent. Not only does the drug sit on neurons, it could also destroy them, Hall said. And because flakka, like bath salts, hang around in the brain for longer than cocaine, the extent of the destruction could be greater.
    Another serious, potentially lingering side effect of flakka is the effect on kidneys. The drug can cause muscles to break down, as a result of hyperthermia, taking a toll on kidneys. Experts worry that some survivors of flakka overdoses may be on dialysis for the rest of their life.
    Like most synthetic drugs, the bulk of flakka seems to come from China and is either sold over the Internet or through gas stations or other dealers. A dose can go for $3 to $5, which makes it a cheap alternative to cocaine. Dealers often target young and poor people and also try to enlist homeless people to buy and sell, Hall said. These are "people who are already disadvantaged in terms of chronic disease and access to health care," he added.
    It is unclear at this point whether flakka is more dangerous than the "bath salts" that came before it. But it does have one advantage over its predecessor: it has not been banned -- yet.
    "Flakka largely emerged as a replacement to MDVP [in 'bath salts']," said Lucas Watterson, a postdoctoral researcher at Temple University School of Medicine Center for Substance Abuse Research.
    Although the Drug Enforcement Administration has placed a temporary ban on flakka, drug makers can work around this ban, such as by sticking a "not for human consumption" label on the drug, Watterson said. It will probably take several years to get the data necessary to put a federal ban on flakka, he added. And a ban can be effective, at least in discouraging potential users.
    "The problem is when one of these drugs is banned or illegal, the drug manufacturer responds by producing a number of different alternatives," Watterson said. "It's sort of a flavor of the month."
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    Location: Faisalabad, Pakistan

    Wednesday, March 22, 2017

    Google hacking

    Google hacking, also named Google dorking,is a computer hacking technique that uses Google Search and other Google applications to find security holes in the configuration and computer code that websites use.

    Contents

      
    • 1Basics
    • 2Advanced operators
    • 3History of Google Hacking
    • 4References
    • 5External links

    Basics

    Google hacking involves using advanced operators in the Google search engine to locate specific strings of text within search results. Some of the more popular examples are finding specific versions of vulnerable Web applications. The following search query would locate all web pages that have that particular text contained within them. It is normal fordefault installations of applications to include their running version in every page they serve, for example, "Powered by XOOPS 2.2.3 Final"
    intitle:admbook intitle:Fversion filetype:php
    One can even retrieve the username and password list from Microsoft FrontPage servers by inputting the given microscript in Google search field:
    "#-Frontpage-" inurl:administrators.pwd
or filetype:log inurl password login
    Devices connected to the Internet can be found. A search string such as inurl:"ViewerFrame?Mode=" will find public web cameras.
    Another useful search is following intitle:index.of followed by a search keyword. This can give a list of files on the servers. For example, intitle:index.of mp3will give all the MP3 files available on various servers.

    Advanced operators

    There are many similar advanced operators which can be used to exploit insecure websites:
    OperatorPurposeMixes with Other Operators?Can be used Alone?WebImagesGroupsNews
    intitleSearch page Titleyesyesyesyesyesyes
    allintitle[3]Search page titlenoyesyesyesyesyes
    inurlSearch URLyesyesyesyesnot reallylike intitle
    allinurlSearch URLnoyesyesyesyeslike intitle
    filetypespecific filesyesnoyesyesnonot really
    intextSearch text of page onlyyesyesyesyesyesyes
    allintextSearch text of page onlynot reallyyesyesyesyesyes
    siteSearch specific siteyesyesyesyesnonot really
    linkSearch for links to pagesnoyesyesnononot really
    inanchorSearch link anchor textyesyesyesyesnot reallyyes
    numrangeLocate numberyesyesyesnononot really
    daterangeSearch in date rangeyesnoyesnot reallynot reallynot really
    authorGroup author searchyesyesnonoyesnot really
    groupGroup name searchnot reallyyesnonoyesnot really
    insubjectGroup subject searchyesyeslike intitlelike intitleyeslike intitle
    msgidGroup msgid searchnoyesnot reallynot reallyyesnot really
    The "link:" search operator that Google used to have, has been turned off by now (2017).[4]

    History of Google Hacking

    See also: Johnny Long § Google hacking
    Johnny Long creates "googleDorks" in 2002
    The concept of "Google Hacking" dates back to 2002, when Johnny Long began to collect interesting Google search queries that uncovered vulnerable systems and/or sensitive information disclosures - labeling them googleDorks.
    The list of googleDorks grew into large dictionary of queries, which were eventually organized into the original Google Hacking Database (GHDB) in 2004. These Google hacking techniques were the focus of a book released by Johnny Long in 2005, called Google Hacking for Penetration Testers, Volume 1.
    Since its heyday, the concepts explored in Google Hacking have been extended to other search engines, such as Bing and Shodan.Automated attack tools  use custom search dictionaries to find vulnerable systems and sensitive information disclosures in public systems that have been indexed by search engines.
    But in 2012 Google held an open challenge for anyone to infiltrate their resisting servers. For a full visual timeline, detailing the major events and developments in Google Hacking from 2002 to Present, see the Google Hacking History by Bishop Fox.
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    Location: Faisalabad, Pakistan

    List of Microsoft Windows

    Windows 1.x

    Main article: Windows 1.0
    The first independent version of Microsoft Windows, version 1.0, released on November 20, 1985, achieved little popularity. The project was briefly codenamed "Interface Manager" before the windowing system was developed - contrary to popular belief that it was the original name for Windows and Rowland Hanson, the head of marketing at Microsoft, convinced the company that the name Windows would be more appealing to customers.
    Windows 1.0 was not a complete operating system, but rather an "operating environment" that extended MS-DOS, and shared the latter's inherent flaws and problems.
    The first version of Microsoft Windows included a simple graphics painting program called Windows Paint; Windows Write, a simple word processor; an appointment calendar; a card-filer; a notepad; a clock; a control panel; a computer terminal; Clipboard; and RAM driver. It also included the MS-DOS Executive and a game called Reversi.
    Microsoft had worked with Apple Computer to develop applications for Apple's new Macintosh computer, which featured a graphical user interface. As part of the related business negotiations, Microsoft had licensed certain aspects of the Macintosh user interface from Apple; in later litigation, a district court summarized these aspects as "screen displays". In the development of Windows 1.0, Microsoft intentionally limited its borrowing of certain GUI elements from the Macintosh user interface, to comply with its license. For example, windows were only displayed "tiled" on the screen; that is, they could not overlap or overlie one another.

    Windows 2.x

    Main articles: Windows 2.0 and Windows 2.1x
    Microsoft Windows version 2 came out on December 9, 1987, and proved slightly more popular than its predecessor. Much of the popularity for Windows 2.0 came by way of its inclusion as a "run-time version" with Microsoft's new graphical applications, Excel and Word for Windows. They could be run from MS-DOS, executing Windows for the duration of their activity, and closing down Windows upon exit.
    Microsoft Windows received a major boost around this time when Aldus PageMaker appeared in a Windows version, having previously run only on Macintosh. Some computer historians date this, the first appearance of a significant and non-Microsoft application for Windows, as the start of the success of Windows.
    Versions 2.0x used the real-mode memory model, which confined it to a maximum of 1 megabyte of memory. In such a configuration, it could run under another multitasker likeDESQview, which used the 286 protected mode.
    Later, two new versions were released: Windows/286 2.1 and Windows/386 2.1. Like prior versions of Windows, Windows/286 2.1 used the real-mode memory model, but was the first version to support the High Memory Area. Windows/386 2.1 had a protected mode kernel with LIM-standard EMS emulation. All Windows and DOS-based applications at the time were real mode, running over the protected mode kernel by using the virtual 8086 mode, which was new with the 80386 processor.
    Version 2.03, and later 3.0, faced challenges from Apple over its overlapping windows and other features Apple charged mimicked the ostensibly copyrighted "look and feel" of its operating system and "embodie[d] and generated a copy of the Macintosh" in its OS. Judge William Schwarzer dropped all but 10 of Apple's 189 claims of copyright infringement, and ruled that most of the remaining 10 were over uncopyrightable ideas.

    Windows 3.0

    Main article: Windows 3.0
    Windows 3.0, released in May 1990, improved capabilities given to native applications. It also allowed users to better multitask older MS-DOS based software compared to Windows/386, thanks to the introduction of virtual memory.
    Windows 3.0's user interface finally resembled a serious competitor to the user interface of the Macintosh computer. PCs had improved graphics by this time, due to VGA video cards, and the protected/enhanced mode allowed Windows applications to use more memory in a more painless manner than their DOS counterparts could. Windows 3.0 could run in real, standard, or 386 enhanced modes, and was compatible with any Intel processor from the 8086/8088 up to the 80286 and 80386. This was the first version to run Windows programs in protected mode, although the 386 enhanced mode kernel was an enhanced version of the protected mode kernel in Windows/386.
    Windows 3.0 received two updates. A few months after introduction, Windows 3.0a was released as a maintenance release, resolving bugs and improving stability. A "multimedia" version, Windows 3.0 with Multimedia Extensions 1.0, was released in October 1991. This was bundled with "multimedia upgrade kits", comprising a CD-ROM drive and a sound card, such as the Creative Labs Sound Blaster Pro. This version was the precursor to the multimedia features available in Windows 3.1 (first released in April 1992) and later, and was part of Microsoft's specification for the Multimedia PC.
    The features listed above and growing market support from application software developers made Windows 3.0 wildly successful, selling around 10 million copies in the two years before the release of version 3.1. Windows 3.0 became a major source of income for Microsoft, and led the company to revise some of its earlier plans. Support was discontinued on December 31, 2001.

    OS/2


    OS/2 logo
    Main article: OS/2
    During the mid to late 1980s, Microsoft and IBM had cooperatively been developing OS/2 as a successor to DOS. OS/2 would take full advantage of the aforementioned protected mode of the Intel 80286 processor and up to 16 MB of memory. OS/2 1.0, released in 1987, supported swapping and multitasking and allowed running of DOS executables.
    A GUI, called the Presentation Manager (PM), was not available with OS/2 until version 1.1, released in 1988. Its API was incompatible with Windows. Version 1.2, released in 1989, introduced a new file system, HPFS, to replace the FAT file system.
    By the early 1990s, conflicts developed in the Microsoft/IBM relationship. They cooperated with each other in developing their PC operating systems, and had access to each other's code. Microsoft wanted to further develop Windows, while IBM desired for future work to be based on OS/2. In an attempt to resolve this tension, IBM and Microsoft agreed that IBM would develop OS/2 2.0, to replace OS/2 1.3 and Windows 3.0, while Microsoft would develop a new operating system, OS/2 3.0, to later succeed OS/2 2.0.
    This agreement soon however fell apart, and the Microsoft/IBM relationship was terminated. IBM continued to develop OS/2, while Microsoft changed the name of its (as yet unreleased) OS/2 3.0 to Windows NT. Both retained the rights to use OS/2 and Windows technology developed up to the termination of the agreement; Windows NT, however, was to be written anew, mostly independently (see below).
    After an interim 1.3 version to fix up many remaining problems with the 1.x series, IBM released OS/2 version 2.0 in 1992. This was a major improvement: it featured a new, object-oriented GUI, the Workplace Shell (WPS), that included a desktop and was considered by many to be OS/2's best feature. Microsoft would later imitate much of it in Windows 95. Version 2.0 also provided a full 32-bit API, offered smooth multitasking and could take advantage of the 4 gigabytes of address space provided by the Intel 80386. Still, much of the system had 16-bit code internally which required, among other things, device drivers to be 16-bit code also. This was one of the reasons for the chronic shortage of OS/2 drivers for the latest devices. Version 2.0 could also run DOS and Windows 3.0 programs, since IBM had retained the right to use the DOS and Windows code as a result of the breakup.
    Windows 3.1
    In response to the impending release of OS/2 2.0, Microsoft developed Windows 3.1 (first released in April 1992), which included several improvements to Windows 3.0, such as display of TrueType scalable fonts (developed jointly with Apple), improved disk performance in 386 Enhanced Mode, multimedia support, and bugfixes. It also removed Real Mode, and only ran on an 80286 or better processor. Later Microsoft also released Windows 3.11, a touch-up to Windows 3.1 which included all of the patches and updates that followed the release of Windows 3.1 in 1992.
    • In 1992 and 1993, Microsoft released Windows for Workgroups (WfW), which was available both as an add-on for existing Windows 3.1 installations and in a version that included the base Windows environment and the networking extensions all in one package. Windows for Workgroups included improved network drivers and protocol stacks, and support for peer-to-peer networking. There were two versions of Windows for Workgroups, WfW 3.1 and WfW 3.11. Unlike prior versions, Windows for Workgroups 3.11 ran in 386 Enhanced Mode only, and needed at least an 80386SX processor. One optional download for WfW was the "Wolverine" TCP/IP protocol stack, which allowed for easy access to the Internet through corporate networks.
    All these versions continued version 3.0's impressive sales pace. Even though the 3.1x series still lacked most of the important features of OS/2, such as long file names, a desktop, or protection of the system against misbehaving applications, Microsoft quickly took over the OS and GUI markets for the IBM PC. The Windows API became the de facto standard for consumer software.

    Windows NT 3.x

    Main articles: Windows NT, Windows NT 3.1, Windows NT 3.5, and Windows NT 3.51
    Meanwhile, Microsoft continued to develop Windows NT. The main architect of the system was Dave Cutler, one of the chief architects of VMS at Digital Equipment Corporation(later acquired by Compaq, now part of Hewlett-Packard).Microsoft hired him in October 1988 to create a successor to OS/2, but Cutler created a completely new system instead. Cutler had been developing a follow-on to VMS at DEC called Mica, and when DEC dropped the project he brought the expertise and around 20 engineers with him to Microsoft. DEC also believed he brought Mica's code to Microsoft and sued.Microsoft eventually paid US$150 million and agreed to support DEC's Alpha CPU chip in NT.
    Windows NT Workstation (Microsoft marketing wanted Windows NT to appear to be a continuation of Windows 3.1) arrived in Beta form to developers at the July 1992 Professional Developers Conference  in San Francisco.Microsoft announced at the conference its intentions to develop a successor to both Windows NT and Windows 3.1's replacement (Windows 95, codenamed Chicago), which would unify the two into one operating system. This successor was codenamed Cairo. In hindsight, Cairo was a much more difficult project than Microsoft had anticipated and, as a result, NT and Chicago would not be unified until Windows XP—albeit Windows 2000, oriented to business, had already unified most of the system’s bolts and gears, it was XP that was sold to home consumers like Windows 95 and came to be viewed as the final unified OS. Parts of Cairo have still not made it into Windows as of 2017 - most notably, the WinFS file system, which was the much touted Object File System of Cairo. Microsoft announced that they have discontinued the separate release of WinFS for Windows XP and Windows Vista and will gradually incorporate the technologies developed for WinFS in other products and technologies, notably Microsoft SQL Server.
    Driver support was lacking due to the increased programming difficulty in dealing with NT's superior hardware abstraction model. This problem plagued the NT line all the way through Windows 2000. Programmers complained that it was too hard to write drivers for NT, and hardware developers were not going to go through the trouble of developing drivers for a small segment of the market. Additionally, although allowing for good performance and fuller exploitation of system resources, it was also resource-intensive on limited hardware, and thus was only suitable for larger, more expensive machines.
    However, these same features made Windows NT perfect for the LAN server market (which in 1993 was experiencing a rapid boom, as office networking was becoming common). NT also had advanced network connectivity options and NTFS, an efficient file system. Windows NT version 3.51 was Microsoft's entry into this field, and took away market share from Novell (the dominant player) in the following years.
    One of Microsoft's biggest advances initially developed for Windows NT was a new 32-bit API, to replace the legacy 16-bit Windows API. This API was called Win32, and from then on Microsoft referred to the older 16-bit API as Win16. The Win32 API had three levels implementations: the complete one for Windows NT, a subset for Chicago (originally called Win32c) missing features primarily of interest to enterprise customers (at the time) such as security and Unicode support, and a more limited subset called Win32s which could be used on Windows 3.1 systems. Thus Microsoft sought to ensure some degree of compatibility between the Chicago design and Windows NT, even though the two systems had radically different internal architectures. Windows NT was the first Windows operating system based on a hybrid kernel.
    As released, Windows NT 3.x went through three versions (3.1, 3.5, and 3.51); changes were primarily internal and reflected back end changes. The 3.5 release added support for new types of hardware and improved performance and data reliability; the 3.51 release was primarily to update the Win32 APIs to be compatible with software being written for the Win32c APIs in what became Windows 95.

    Windows 95

    Main article: Windows 95
    After Windows 3.11, Microsoft began to develop a new consumer oriented version of the operating system codenamed Chicago. Chicago was designed to have support for 32-bit preemptive multitasking like OS/2 and Windows NT, although a 16-bit kernel would remain for the sake of backward compatibility. The Win32 API first introduced with Windows NT was adopted as the standard 32-bit programming interface, with Win16 compatibility being preserved through a technique known as "thunking". A new object oriented GUI was not originally planned as part of the release, although elements of the Cairo user interface were borrowed and added as other aspects of the release (notably Plug and Play) slipped.
    Microsoft did not change all of the Windows code to 32-bit; parts of it remained 16-bit (albeit not directly using real mode) for reasons of compatibility, performance, and development time. Additionally it was necessary to carry over design decisions from earlier versions of Windows for reasons of backwards compatibility, even if these design decisions no longer matched a more modern computing environment. These factors eventually began to impact the operating system's efficiency and stability.
    Microsoft marketing adopted Windows 95 as the product name for Chicago when it was released on August 24, 1995. Microsoft had a double gain from its release: first, it made it impossible for consumers to run Windows 95 on a cheaper, non-Microsoft DOS; secondly, although traces of DOS were never completely removed from the system and MS DOS 7 would be loaded briefly as a part of the booting process, Windows 95 applications ran solely in 386 enhanced mode, with a flat 32-bit address space and virtual memory. These features make it possible for Win32 applications to address up to 2 gigabytes of virtual RAM (with another 2 GB reserved for the operating system), and in theory prevented them from inadvertently corrupting the memory space of other Win32 applications. In this respect the functionality of Windows 95 moved closer to Windows NT, although Windows 95/98/ME did not support more than 512 megabytes of physical RAM without obscure system tweaks.
    IBM continued to market OS/2, producing later versions in OS/2 3.0 and 4.0 (also called Warp). Responding to complaints about OS/2 2.0's high demands on computer hardware, version 3.0 was significantly optimized both for speed and size. Before Windows 95 was released, OS/2 Warp 3.0 was even shipped preinstalled with several large German hardware vendor chains. However, with the release of Windows 95, OS/2 began to lose market share.
    It is probably impossible to choose one specific reason why OS/2 failed to gain much market share. While OS/2 continued to run Windows 3.1 applications, it lacked support for anything but the Win32s subset of Win32 API (see above). Unlike with Windows 3.1, IBM did not have access to the source code for Windows 95 and was unwilling to commit the time and resources to emulate the moving target of the Win32 API. IBM later introduced OS/2 into the United States v. Microsoft case, blaming unfair marketing tactics on Microsoft's part.
    Microsoft went on to release five different versions of Windows 95:
    • Windows 95 - original release
    • Windows 95 A - included Windows 95 OSR1 slipstreamed into the installation.
    • Windows 95 B - (OSR2) included several major enhancements, Internet Explorer (IE) 3.0 and full FAT32 file system support.
    • Windows 95 B USB - (OSR2.1) included basic USB support.
    • Windows 95 C - (OSR2.5) included all the above features, plus IE 4.0. This was the last 95 version produced.
    OSR2, OSR2.1, and OSR2.5 were not released to the general public; rather, they were available only to OEMs that would preload the OS onto computers. Some companies sold new hard drives with OSR2 preinstalled (officially justifying this as needed due to the hard drive's capacity).
    The first Microsoft Plus! add-on pack was sold for Windows 95.

    Windows NT 4.0

    Main article: Windows NT 4.0
    Windows NT 4.0 was the successor of 3.51 (1995) and 3.5 (1994). Microsoft released Windows NT 4.0 to manufacturing in July 1996, one year after the release of Windows 95. Major new features included the new Explorer shell from Windows 95, scalability and feature improvements to the core architecture, kernel, USER32, COM and MSRPC.
    Windows NT 4.0 came in four versions:
    • Windows NT 4.0 Workstation
    • Windows NT 4.0 Server
    • Windows NT 4.0 Server, Enterprise Edition (includes support for 8-way SMP and clustering)
    • Windows NT 4.0 Terminal Server

    Windows 98

    Main article: Windows 98

    Windows 98 desktop
    On June 25, 1998, Microsoft released Windows 98 (codenamed Memphis). It included new hardware drivers and the FAT32 file system which supports disk partitions that are larger than 2 GB (first introduced in Windows 95 OSR2). USB support in Windows 98 is marketed as a vast improvement over Windows 95. The release continued the controversial inclusion of the Internet Explorer browser with the operating system that started with Windows 95 OEM Service Release 1. The action eventually led to the filing of the United States v. Microsoft case, dealing with the question of whether Microsoft was introducing unfair practices into the market in an effort to eliminate competition from other companies such as Netscape.
    In 1999, Microsoft released Windows 98 Second Edition, an interim release. One of the more notable new features was the addition ofInternet Connection Sharing, a form of network address translation, allowing several machines on a LAN (Local Area Network) to share a single Internet connection. Hardware support through device drivers was increased and this version shipped with Internet Explorer 5. Many minor problems that existed in the first edition were fixed making it, according to many, the most stable release of the Windows 9xfamily.

    Windows 2000

    Main article: Windows 2000
    Microsoft released Windows 2000 on February 17, 2000. It has the version number Windows NT 5.0. Windows 2000 has had four official service packs. It was successfully deployed both on the server and the workstation markets. Amongst Windows 2000's most significant new features was Active Directory, a near-complete replacement of the NT 4.0 Windows Server domain model, which built on industry-standard technologies like DNS, LDAP, and Kerberos to connect machines to one another. Terminal Services, previously only available as a separate edition of NT 4, was expanded to all server versions. A number of features from Windows 98 were incorporated also, such as an improved Device Manager, Windows Media Player, and a revised DirectX that made it possible for the first time for many modern games to work on the NT kernel. Windows 2000 is also the last NT-kernel Windows operating system to lack product activation.
    While Windows 2000 upgrades were available for Windows 95 and Windows 98, it was not intended for home users.
    Windows 2000 was available in four editions:
    • Windows 2000 Professional
    • Windows 2000 Server
    • Windows 2000 Advanced Server
    • Windows 2000 Datacenter Server

    Windows ME

    Main article: Windows ME

    Windows ME Desktop
    In September 2000, Microsoft released a successor to Windows 98 called Windows ME, short for "Millennium Edition". It was the last DOS-based operating system from Microsoft. Windows ME introduced a new multimedia-editing application called Windows Movie Maker, came standard with Internet Explorer 5.5 and Windows Media Player 7, and debuted the first version of System Restore – a recovery utility that enables the operating system to revert system files back to a prior date and time. System Restore was a notable feature that would continue to thrive in later versions of Windows, including XP, Vista, and Windows 7.
    Windows ME was conceived as a quick one-year project that served as a stopgap release between Windows 98 and Windows XP. Many of the new features were available from the Windows Update site as updates for older Windows versions (System Restore and Windows Movie Maker were exceptions). Windows ME was criticized for stability issues, as well as for lacking real mode DOS support, to the point of being referred to as the "Mistake Edition" or "Many Errors." Windows ME was the last operating system to be based on the Windows 9x (monolithic) kernel and MS-DOS.

    Windows XP and Server 2003


    Windows XP Desktop
    Main articles: Windows XP and Features new to Windows XP
    On October 25, 2001, Microsoft released Windows XP (codenamed "Whistler"). The merging of the Windows NT/2000 and Windows 95/98/Me lines was finally achieved with Windows XP. Windows XP uses the Windows NT 5.1 kernel, marking the entrance of the Windows NT core to the consumer market, to replace the aging 16/32-bit branch. The initial release met with considerable criticism, particularly in the area of security, leading to the release of three major Service Packs. Windows XP SP1 was released in September 2002, SP2 came out in August 2004 and SP3 came out in April 2008. Service Pack 2 provided significant improvements and encouraged widespread adoption of XP among both home and business users. Windows XP lasted longer as Microsoft's flagship operating system than any other version of Windows, from October 25, 2001 to January 30, 2007 when it was succeeded by Windows Vista.
    Windows XP is available in a number of versions:
    • Windows XP Home Edition, for home desktops and laptops - lacked features such as joining Active Directory Domain, Remote Desktop Server and Internet Information Services Server.
      • Windows XP Home Edition N, as above, but without a default installation of Windows Media Player, as mandated by a European Union ruling
    • Windows XP Professional, for business and power users contained all features in Home Edition.
      • Windows XP Professional N, as above, but without a default installation of Windows Media Player, as mandated by a European Union ruling
    • Windows XP Media Center Edition (MCE), released in October 2002 for desktops and notebooks with an emphasis on home entertainment. Contained all features offered in Windows XP Professional and the Windows Media Center. Subsequent versions are the same but have an updated Windows Media Center.
      • Windows XP Media Center Edition 2003
      • Windows XP Media Center Edition 2004
      • Windows XP Media Center Edition 2005, released on October 12, 2004. Included Windows XP Service Pack 2, the Royale Windows Theme and joining a Windows Active Directory Domain is disabled. The Aquarium, Da Vinci, Nature and Space themes are retained from Windows XP Plus!
    • Windows XP Tablet PC Edition, for tablet PCs
      • Windows XP Tablet PC Edition 2005
    • Windows XP Embedded, for embedded systems
    • Windows XP Starter Edition, for new computer users in developing countries
    • Windows XP Professional x64 Edition, released on April 25, 2005 for home and workstation systems utilizing 64-bit processors based on the x86-64 instruction set originally developed by AMD as AMD64; Intel calls their version Intel 64. Internally, XP x64 was a somewhat updated OS based on the Server 2003 code line.
    • Windows XP 64-bit Edition, is a version for Intel's Itanium line of processors; maintains 32-bit compatibility solely through a software emulator. It is roughly analogous to Windows XP Professional in features. It was discontinued in September 2005 when the last vendor of Itanium workstations stopped shipping Itanium systems marketed as "Workstations".

    Windows Server 2003

    Main article: Windows Server 2003

    Windows Server 2003 Desktop
    On April 25, 2003 Microsoft launched Windows Server 2003, a notable update to Windows 2000 Server encompassing many new security features, a new "Manage Your Server" wizard that simplifies configuring a machine for specific roles, and improved performance. It has the version number NT 5.2. A few services not essential for server environments are disabled by default for stability reasons, most noticeable are the "Windows Audio" and "Themes" services; users have to enable them manually to get sound or the "Luna" look as per Windows XP. The hardware acceleration for display is also turned off by default, users have to turn the acceleration level up themselves if they trust the display card driver.
    December 2005, Microsoft released Windows Server 2003 R2, which is actually Windows Server 2003 with SP1 (Service Pack 1) plus anadd-on package. Among the new features are a number of management features for branch offices, file serving, printing and company-wide identity integration.
    Windows Server 2003 is available in six editions:
    • Web Edition (32-bit)
    • Enterprise Edition (32 and 64-bit)
    • Datacenter Edition (32 and 64-bit)
    • Small Business Server (32-bit)
    • Storage Server (OEM channel only).
    Windows Server 2003 R2, an update of Windows Server 2003, was released to manufacturing on December 6, 2005. It is distributed on two CDs, with one CD being the Windows Server 2003 SP1 CD. The other CD adds many optionally installable features for Windows Server 2003. The R2 update was released for all x86 and x64 versions, except Windows Server 2003 R2 Enterprise Edition, which was not released for Itanium.

    Windows XP x64 and Server 2003 x64 Editions

    Main article: Windows XP Professional x64 Edition
    On April 25, 2005, Microsoft released Windows XP Professional x64 Edition and Windows Server 2003, x64 Editions in Standard, Enterprise and Datacenter SKUs. Windows XP Professional x64 Edition is an edition of Windows XP for x86-64 personal computers. It is designed to use the expanded 64-bit memory address space provided by the x86-64 architecture.
    Windows XP Professional x64 Edition is based on the Windows Server 2003 codebase; with the server features removed and client features added. Both Windows Server 2003 x64 and Windows XP Professional x64 Edition use identical kernels.
    Windows XP Professional x64 Edition is not to be confused with Windows XP 64-bit Edition, as the latter was designed for Intel Itanium processors.During the initial development phases, Windows XP Professional x64 Edition was named Windows XP 64-Bit Edition for 64-Bit Extended Systems.

    Windows Fundamentals for Legacy PCs

    Main article: Windows Fundamentals for Legacy PCs

    Windows Fundamentals for Legacy PCS Desktop
    In July 2005, Microsoft released a thin-client version of Windows XP Service Pack 2, called Windows Fundamentals for Legacy PCs(WinFLP). It is only available to Software Assurance customers. The aim of WinFLP is to give companies a viable upgrade option for older PCs that are running Windows 95, 98, and Me that will be supported with patches and updates for the next several years. Most user applications will typically be run on a remote machine using Terminal Services or Citrix.

    Windows Home Server

    Main article: Windows Home Server
    Windows Home Server (codenamed Q, Quattro) is a server product based on Windows Server 2003, designed for consumer use. The system was announced on January 7, 2007 by Russel Adolfo. Windows Home Server can be configured and monitored using a console program that can be installed on a client PC. Such features as Media Sharing, local and remote drive backup and file duplication are all listed as features. The release of Windows Home Server Power Pack 3 added support for Windows 7 to Windows Home Server.

    Windows Vista and Server 2008


    Windows Vista Desktop
    Main articles: Windows Vista, Features new to Windows Vista, Development of Windows Vista, Criticisms of Windows Vista, and List of features removed in Windows Vista
    Windows Vista was released on January, 2007 to business customers - consumer versions followed on January 30, 2007. Windows Vista intended to have enhanced security by introducing a new restricted user mode called User Account Control, replacing the "administrator-by-default" philosophy of Windows XP. Vista was the target of much criticism and negative press, and in general was not well regarded; this was seen as leading to the relatively swift release of Windows 7.
    One major difference between Vista and earlier versions of Windows, Windows 95 and later, is that the original start button was replaced with the Windows icon in a circle (called the Start Orb). Vista also features new graphics features, the Windows Aero GUI, new applications (such as Windows Calendar, Windows DVD Maker and some new games including Chess, Mahjong, and Purble Place),Internet Explorer 7, Windows Media Player 11, and a large number of underlying architectural changes including Windows Powershellbeing shipped with the operating system, which many believed to have taken place in Windows 7's architecture and later. Windows Vista has the version number NT 6.0. Since its release, Windows Vista has had two service packs.
    Windows Vista ships in six editions:
    • Starter (only available in developing countries)
    • Home Basic
    • Home Premium
    • Business
    • Enterprise (only available to large business and enterprise)
    • Ultimate (combines both Home Premium and Enterprise)
    All editions (except Starter edition) are currently available in both 32-bit and 64-bit versions. The biggest advantage of the 64-bit version is breaking the 4 gigabyte memory barrier, which 32-bit computers cannot fully access.

    Windows Server 2008

    Main article: Windows Server 2008
    Windows Server 2008, released on February 27, 2008, was originally known as Windows Server Codename "Longhorn". Windows Server 2008 builds on the technological and security advances first introduced with Windows Vista, and is significantly more modular than its predecessor, Windows Server 2003.
    Windows Server 2008 ships in ten editions:
    • Windows Server 2008 Standard Edition (32-bit and 64-bit)
    • Windows Server 2008 Enterprise Edition (32-bit and 64-bit)
    • Windows Server 2008 Datacenter Edition (32-bit and 64-bit)
    • Windows HPC Server 2008
    • Windows Web Server 2008 (32-bit and 64-bit)
    • Windows Storage Server 2008 (32-bit and 64-bit)
    • Windows Small Business Server 2008 (64-bit only)
    • Windows Essential Business Server 2008 (32-bit and 64-bit)
    • Windows Server 2008 for Itanium-based Systems
    • Windows Server 2008 Foundation Server

    Windows 7 and Server 2008 R2

    Main articles: Windows 7, Features new to Windows 7, and Windows Server 2008 R2

    Windows 7 Desktop
    Windows 7 was released to manufacturing on July 22, 2009, and reached general retail availability on October 22, 2009. It was previously known by the codenames Blackcomb and Vienna. Windows 7 has the version number NT 6.1. Since its release, Windows 7 has had one service pack.
    Some features of Windows 7 are faster booting, Device Stage, Windows PowerShell, less obtrusive User Account Control, multi-touch, and improved window management. Features included with Windows Vista and not in Windows 7 include the sidebar (although gadgets remain) and several programs that were removed in favor of downloading their Windows Live counterparts.
    Windows 7 ships in six editions:
    • Starter (available worldwide)
    • Home Basic
    • Home Premium
    • Professional
    • Enterprise (available to volume-license business customers only)
    • Ultimate
    In some countries (Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, United Kingdom, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, and Switzerland), there are other editions that lack some features such as Windows Media Player, Windows Media Center and Internet Explorer - these editions were called names such as "Windows 7 N." Microsoft focuses on selling Windows 7 Home Premium and Professional. All editions, except the Starter edition, are available in both 32-bit and 64-bit versions. Unlike the corresponding Vista editions, the Professional and Enterprise editions are supersets of the Home Premium edition.
    At the Professional Developers Conference (PDC) 2008, Microsoft also announced Windows Server 2008 R2, as the server variant of Windows 7. Windows Server 2008 R2 ships in 64-bit versions (x64 and Itanium) only.

    Windows Thin PC

    Main article: Windows Thin PC
    In 2010, Microsoft released Windows Thin PC or WinTPC, which is a feature- and size-reduced locked-down version of Windows 7 expressly designed to turn older PCs into thin clients. WinTPC is available for software assurance customers and relies on cloud computing in a business network. Wireless operation is supported since WinTPC has full wireless stack integration, but wireless operation may not be as good as the operation on a wired connection.

    Windows Home Server 2011

    Main article: Windows Home Server 2011
    Windows Home Server 2011 code named 'Vail' was released on April 6, 2011.Windows Home Server 2011 is built on the Windows Server 2008 R2 code base and removed the Drive Extender drive pooling technology in the original Windows Home Server release.Windows Home Server 2011 is considered a "major release". Its predecessor was built on Windows Server 2003. WHS 2011 only supports x86-64 hardware.
    Microsoft decided to discontinue Windows Home Server 2011 on July 5, 2012 while including its features into Windows Server 2012 Essentials . Windows Home Server 2011 was supported until April 12, 2016 

    Windows 8 and Server 2012


    Screenshot of the Start screen on Windows 8.1 with Update 1
    Main articles: Windows 8, Windows Server 2012, Windows 8.1, and Windows Server 2012 R2
    On October 26, 2012, Microsoft released Windows 8 to the public. One edition, Windows RT, runs on some system-on-a-chip devices with mobile 32-bit ARM (ARMv7) processors. Windows 8 features a redesigned user interface, designed to make it easier for touchscreen users to use Windows. The interface introduced an updated Start menu known as the Start screen, and a new full-screen application platform. The desktop interface is also present for running windowed applications, although Windows RT will not run any desktop applications not included in the system. On the Building Windows 8 blog, it was announced that a computer running Windows 8 can boot up much faster than Windows 7. New features also include USB 3.0 support, the Windows Store, the ability to run from USB drives withWindows To Go, and others. Windows 8 was given the kernel number NT 6.2, with its successor 8.1 receiving the kernel number 6.3. So far, neither has had any service packs yet, although many consider Windows 8.1 to be a service pack for Windows 8.
    Windows 8 is available in the following editions:
    • Windows 8
    • Windows 8 Pro
    • Windows 8 Enterprise
    • Windows RT
    The first public preview of Windows Server 2012 and was also shown by Microsoft at the 2011 Microsoft Worldwide Partner Conference.
    Windows 8 Release Preview and Windows Server 2012 Release Candidate were both released on May 31, 2012. Product development on Windows 8 was completed on August 1, 2012, and it was released to manufacturing the same day. Windows Server 2012 went on sale to the public on September 4, 2012. Windows 8 went on sale October 26, 2012.
    Windows 8.1 and Windows Server 2012 R2 were released on October 17, 2013. Windows 8.1 is available as an update in the Windows store for Windows 8 users only and also available to download for clean installation. The update adds new options for resizing the live tiles on the Start screen.

    Windows 10 and Server 2016

    Main article: Windows 10
    Windows 10, codenamed Threshold, is the current release of the Microsoft Windows operating system. Unveiled on August 30, 2014, it was released on July 29, 2015. It was distributed without charge to Windows 7 and 8.1 users for one year after release. A number of new features like Cortana, the Microsoft Edge web browser, the ability to view Windows Store apps as a window instead of fullscreen, virtual desktops, revamped core apps, Continuum, and a unified Settings app were all features debuted in Windows 10. Microsoft has announced that Windows 10 will be the last major version of its series of operating systems to be released. Instead, Microsoft will release major updates to the operating system via download or in Windows Update, similar to the way updates are delivered in macOS.
    So far, 3 major versions have been released, and 1 which has been announced for release in 2017:
    • Version 1507, the original version of Windows 10, codenamed Threshold 1 and released in July 2015.Kernel version number: 10.0.10240.
    • Version 1511, announced as the November Update and codenamed Threshold 2. It was released in November 2015. This update added many visual tweaks, such as more consistent context menus and the ability to change the color of window titlebars. Windows 10 can now be activated with a product key for Windows 7 and later, thus simplifying the activation process and essentially making Windows 10 free for anyone who has Windows 7 or later, even after the free upgrade period ended. A "Find My Device" feature was added, allowing users to track their devices if they lose them, similar to the Find My iPhone service that Apple offers. Controversially, the Start menu now displays "featured apps". A few tweaks were added to Microsoft Edge, including tab previews and the ability to sync the browser with other devices running Windows 10.Kernel version number: 10.0.10586.
    • Version 1607, announced as the Anniversary Update and codenamed Redstone 1. It is the first of 4 planned updates with the "Redstone" codename. Its version number, 1607, means that it was supposed to launch in July 2016, however it was delayed until August 2016. Tons of new features were included in the version, including more integration with Cortana, a dark theme, browser extension support for Microsoft Edge, click-to-play Flash by default, tab pinning, web notifications, swipe navigation in Edge, and the ability for Windows Hello to use a fingerprint sensor to sign into apps and websites, similar to Touch ID on the iPhone. Also added was Windows Ink, which improves digital inking in many apps, and the Windows Ink Workspace which lists pen-compatible apps, as well as quick shortcuts to a sticky notes app and a sketchpad. Microsoft, through their partnership with Canonical, integrated a full Ubuntu bash shell via the Windows Subsystem for Linux. Notable tweaks in this version of Windows 10 include the removal of the controversial password-sharing feature of Microsoft's Wi-Fi Sense service, a slightly redesigned Start menu, Tablet Mode working more like Windows 8, overhauled emoji, improvements to the lock screen, calendar integration in the taskbar, and the Blue Screen of Death now showing a QR code which users can scan to quickly find out what caused the error. This version of Windows 10's kernel version is 10.0.14393.
    • Version 1704, announced as the Creators Update and codenamed Redstone 2. Planned features for this update include a new Paint 3D application, which allows users to create and modify 3D models, integration with Microsoft's HoloLens and other "mixed-reality" headsets produced by other manufactures, Windows MyPeople, which allows users to manage contacts, Xbox game broadcasting, support for newly developed APIs such as WDDM 2.2, Dolby Atmos support, improvements to the Settings app, and more Edge and Cortana improvements. This version will also include tweaks to system apps, such as an address bar in the Registry Editor, Windows PowerShell being the default command line interface instead of the Command Prompt and the Windows Subsytem for Linux being upgraded to support Ubuntu 16.04. One could infer from the version number that this version of Windows 10 will be released in April 2017.

    Windows Server 2016

    Main article: Windows Server 2016
    Windows Server 2016 is a release of the Microsoft Windows Server operating system that was unveiled on September 30, 2014. Windows Server 2016 was officially released at Microsoft's Ignite Conference, September 26–30, 2016.
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